Blog 8

1. What I understand from today's lesson?

We have learned/discussed about:

a) Observation

-is the distinction of external virtue, since it is the contact of theory to the outside world

-is the source of the world’s input and guidance over our describing and modeling.

-provides unaltered facts, it is different from inferences which may be biased

-is an essential aspect of scientific process

b) The importance of observation

-observation is scrutinized

-empirical sciences

-the claims they make are contingent on what is going on in the world

-the decisive and authoritative arbiter of truth in science

-empirists reports of observation will serve as a common ground of agreement for all participants of science regardless of their theoretical or skeptical preconceptions

-intersubjective & accessible by anyone and agreeable to everyone and as adjudicator of theories-at least all agree on the observation

-Observation VS Inferences

Observation: facts, the unaltered information from the world          

Inference: danger of bias and the products of thought could be more artifacts with NO correlation to the real world

-Hope of Empiricist: reasonable observational claims & unimpaired person will agree to

-observation must be on the observational report rather than on the physical event of sensation (sensationalism-e.g. 6 sense)

           

c) Accountable Observation

-science can make use of an observation only if it is an accountable observation

-To be an accountable observation, we need to fulfill 2 aspects of accountability:

i) Observation must be informative (account of something)

ii) Observation must be justified in the sense of being certifiable (X haphazard or uncontrolled)

- justify proper conditions and procedures.

-A useful observation must be reported in an informational form

Example of an informational from

Source: Google Image

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcScWqWNiUd8Fh7gTC8-YEcCgxKyd1OrxpHVYlStHYTtWaCIigqQOw

-X described=USELESS evidence

-2 edges of accountability:

i) To contribute to science or knowledge (an observation must be about something, must be informative, assertive, propositional)

ii) The observational report is accurately about what it claims to be about

-Observational distortions that result from unsuitable conditions:

i) Observer may be improperly attentive / too far away

ii) Viewing conditions may be too dark or littered with obstructions

iii) May be interference from outside sources causing a distorted view

For Activity 1, 2 and 3, we had spent a lot of time on discussing and summarize the main focus. For further explanation, please refer to the padlet links below.

d) Activity 1: Observation and it’s relationship with Theory

padlet link: http://padlet.com/norhayati_maska/NOSobservationandtheory

e) Activity 2: Theory-Laden Observation

padlet link: http://padlet.com/norhayati_maska/NOStheoryladenobservation

f) Activity 3: Observing and Reading

padlet link: http://padlet.com/norhayati_maska/NOSobservingandreading

2. What is the one thing I need help in?

I have learned that “observations are agree by all”. So, what will happen if the observations are not agree by all?

3. How am I going to use this new knowledge to teach nature of science in the future?

When I am going to teach my students, I will ask them to observe the changes and the end products of the experiments. After that, they need to find some ways to record down their observation such as table form or graph. This is because students learn best through experiential learning. I believe that by memorizing the facts and observations that have made or prepared by others does not promote active learning.  

Blog 7

1. What I understand from today's lesson?

Science is neither good nor bad. It depends on how we use it. For example, some people use science to harm others.

Underdetermination:

-refers to situations where the evidence is insufficient to identify which theory we should hold about that evidence. Put it simpler, underdetermination has many ways to explain the same things.

-is a relation between evidence and theory

-is the phenomenon by which there are at least two different or alternative theories that fit the same data set

-this is exemplified by the classic example in Mathematics, where we are able to draw two very different lines that intersect on all data points in a graph. 

Source: Google ImageFrom the picture, we can see the intersect is at (-1,3)

Source: Youtube 

This video basically tells us about what is underdetermination.

-underdetermination occurs wherever there are empirically equivalent theories. For example, are we able to tell that is God exist in this world? Some people might say yes, and some people might say no. So, we are not able to tell is God really exist in this world.

-underdetermination of scientific theories occurs whenever the evidence of data that is used to support the theory 1 and theory 2.

            -If evidence appears that supports one theory rather than another, it does not entail that the theory is the true one. Instead, the other theory may be supported as true by modification of is background assumptions. The consequence of underdetermination in science is that it becomes difficult to tell if there are true scientific claims and theories, and scientific realism is threatened.

-Instrumentalism:

-views theories as useful and intellectual tools to predict future phenomena and organization of observations.

Empiricist:

-The theory is true or false, but we cannot tell which.

-avoid committing oneself one way or the other.      

In short, there are 2 main school of thought which are realism and anti-realism. Realism is aims to prove things and views that theories are either true or false and to specify for what kinds of cases the inference is justifiable. On the other hand, anti-realism is divided into instrumentalism and empiricism. Instrucmentalism means that theories are not seen as true/false, instead they are seen on their usefulness. Empiricism states that theory is true or false but we cannot tell which.

Lastly, there is a very good website to refer as the words and sentences are easy to understand compare to the actual reading. https://lishanchan.wordpress.com/2012/09/27/underdetermination/

2. What is the one thing I need help in?

What is the difference between hypothetical deductive model of confirmation and hypothetico-deductive method of confirmation? Besides that, I need a brief overview of chapter 5: underdetermination for me to understand better. 

3. How am I going to use this new knowledge to teach nature of science in the future?

By attending today’s lesson, I have the basic knowledge for me to teach my students in future. Since, this topic is a bit difficult to understand, I will also ask my students to search extra information on their own and have group discussion. I will simplify the scientific terms that I have learnt today for my students such as instrumentalism and empiricism. 

Blog 6

1. What I understand from today's lesson?

The main of today’s lesson:

1. What is Confirmation (chapter 4)

2. What is underdetermination (Chapter 5)

At the beginning of the class, we have learnt the scientific enquiry method. Testing and Confirmation only happen after construct a hypothesis.

External virtues divide into explanation and confirmation. We have learnt Chapter 3 Explanation last week, so the main focus of today’s lesson is Chapter 4 Confirmation.

Source: Google image

Before we learned main topic, we have listed down the internal and external virtues of the theory:

Internal Virtues:

a. Entrenchment 
b. Explanatory Cooperation 
c. Testability 
d. Generality 
e. Simplicity

External Virtues:

a. Explanation 
b. Testing and Confirmation

I also learned that, a theory must be testable and must be tested.  In addition, achieving positive test is the most observable external virtues as the experiments have been carried out.

Not every theoretical claim can be seen on our own naked eyes, so there is indirectness in testing this claim. To elaborate, for this claim, we can only observe the consequences by determining the effects. For example, we cannot see electricity with our naked eyes instead we can see the effect of electricity when we switch on the light. The consequence is the whole room will be lighted up.

Activity 1:  A Basic Model of Confirmation

The hypothetical-deductive model of confirmation is to see the validity of hypothesis and enhance the credibility. It also confirms a theory based on deductive reasoning.  The deductive reasoning goes as follow:

If the THEORY is true, then the EFFECT must happen, and when the effects HAPPEN or can be SEEN, so the theory must be TRUE.

The table above shows if only the hypothesis is true and the effect MUST occur. But if the effect does not occur, the hypothesis MUST be FALSE. This is a valid deductive argument, and it does prove with certainty that the hypothesis is false. On this model of H-D falsification, a single failed prediction will suffice to falsify a theory and force its rejection.

There are 2 components in the H-D model of confirmation:

(a) Hypothesis

(b) Effects

Activity 2: More detailed and more realistic model

There is a “revised” H-D model as one failed test does not force to the rejection of a theory. This is because the conditions of the environment might affect the result.

Therefore, the new model has 3 components:

(a) Hypothesis

(b) Conditions of testing

(c) Predicted effects

If the hypothesis is true, and the conditions are right then the effect will be observed. The result might fail because the conditions were wrong, but that does not mean that the hypothesis itself is wrong. Condition can be blamed and can be looked back upon when the effect cannot been observed. Therefore, we must regularly test in order to confirm our hypothesis.

2. What is the one thing I need help in?

I understood most of the knowledge and information. I need some simple examples for “revised” H-D model for me to understand better.

3. How am I going to use this new knowledge to teach nature of science in the future?

This lesson taught me on how I should constantly look back when the effect of my hypothesis cannot observed. Instead of saying my hypothesis is false, I should take into consideration of conditions that might affect my hypothesis. Instead of come out with new hypothesis, I would ask my students to analyze their hypothesis if the desirable result is not showed.

Blog 5

1. What I understand from today's lesson?

For today’s lesson, we are assigned with a reading task, Chapter 3: Explanation. Explanation is one of the external virtues of theories.

Science provides us with explanations of the phenomena we experience. Scientific curiosity starts with WHY questions. For instance, “Why does this happen?” and “Why are things this way?”. Scientific explanations are answers to why questions.

To understand this chapter, I have to understand the meaning of explanation. Explanations are an accomplishment because they enhance our understanding of the world. Explanations is a desirable end, but it also a means to something else. It is useful as an indicator of truth.

From the standard model, I have learned the covering-law model of explanation by Carl Hempel. It focuses on the forum rather than on the contents of an explanation. It also mentioned that the pattern of a good explanation will be HOW it put rather than what it says. Scientific explanation is only of the form of presentation, citing a general law to cover a specific instance, and not at all of content. It is a good explanation when the law is understood and the conditions are recognized, the event is to be expected.

I have learned that the covering-law model is also referred as the deductive-nomological model of explanation (D-N model). The meaning of “nomological” is to pertain to laws and “deductive” describes the connection between the statement of the law and relevant conditions, and the conclusion. It is an important connection as if the law is true and if the conditions hold, the event must occur.

There are amendments to the covering-law model which include of two suggestions.

(a) Add a measure of unification

(b) Include explicitly causal laws or causal theories as support

I also learned the difference between symmetry and asymmetry.

Symmetry: If A then B, B will happen because A. (but most of the time the symmetry statement is not true)

Asymmetry: Just because one event is related to/ causes another, it doesn't mean that the reverse is the same. So if A causes B, it may not be true that B causes A

Event: Jess salivates. Condition: got McDs. Explanation: Jess salivates when she sees McDs. *The statements below may or may not be true. Symmetry: Jess salivates when she sees McDs. When Jess salivates, McDs will appear. Asymmetry: Jess salivates when she sees McDs. But when Jess salivates, it does not cause any change in the environment. .:. So the symmetry statement is wrong, but that is how symmetry works

2. What is the one thing I need help in?

For now, I don’t have any doubt as I asked help from my course mate for clarification as well as research on internet.

3. How am I going to use this new knowledge to teach nature of science in the future?

The knowledge that I have learned today is very important for me as I will need to explain the scientific theory to my students when I encounter it. The explanations that I provide to my students should clear their “why” questions. Besides that, I will let my students to know that just because a theory explains something, it does not mean that it is true. 

Blog 4

1. What I understand from today's lesson?

At the beginning of the class, we have learned the meaning  virtues, internal and external.

Virtues means:

-when scientists focus on the features of a theory that indicate that it is a good theory

-The aim of science is to deliver a true account of the world, and must focus on truth-conducive features.

-any feature that supports an affirmative answer

-good or useful quality of a thing

Internal means:

-occurring within

-can be evaluated WITHOUT having to observe the world.

-NO observation needed to check correlations between what the theory says and what the world is like

-economical (low/save costs on experiments or laboratories to check for internal features of a theory)

-can be evaluated by studying books

-/ logical consistent=X logical contradiction

-logical consistency-NOT an experimental procedure

-e.g: I love you and I don’t love you

Logical consistent: TRUE/ positive statement (e.g: do)

Non contradiction: denial cannot both be true at the same time

Logical contradiction: the conjunction of a statement Y and it DENIAL NOT-Y

Logical contradiction: negative statement (e.g: don’t)

Internal virtues does not require observation for evaluation

5 Internal values for justifying theories:

Entrenchment

-A theory should be plausible (def:reasonable and likely to be true), given what we already know. -The property of entrenchment comes in degree which it has to be at least consistent with the background theories of others. -Entrenchment is a principle of conservatism, and it is clearly not a rule that is or should be followed with strict rigidity. -Entrenchment is used as the first indication of a theory’s virtues -The standard of entrenchment must be imposed with discretion (judging wisely and objectively), sometimes taken seriously but other times disregarded (to not consider sth, to treat sth as unimportant).

Explanatory Cooperation (EC)

-EC has an aspect of entrenchment, but has a very high profile in science -EC means cooperation with other theories. (explain why things are the way other theories say they are). -EC makes both theories look good. It’s not that justification flows from one to the other but that explanatory link gives them mutual support. -EC is different from explaining observed phenomena (bcoz: explain observed phenomena is an external feature)

Testability (testable does not mean being tested or as having passed tests, need not only observable predictions but precise predictions as well)

-a crucial aspect of science -a theory must make some predictions observations that can be checked to see that the theory makes contact with the world -A theory that lacks the feature of testability is precluded from evaluation for external virtues. -is described using the concept of falsifiability or refutability -the more precise a prediction, the more informative will be testing

Generality

-general theories can capture basic truths -is a truth-conducive virtue with the assumption of unity -it enhances a theory’s testability -If a theory generalizes over many times, then it is amenable (easy to control) to repeated tests. -enhances falsifiability

Simplicity

-Simplicity is a popular choice. -Sometimes referred to as using Ockham’s razor. -Simple and uncluttered. -Most likely to be true. -Mathematical simplicity can be determined as used as a factor in theory choice. eg: three theories explained in one line graph. -however, evaluating simplicity is not easy. -some theories cannot be easily explained such as theory of evaluation (no mathematical elements involved) -Theory is also influenced by the language used by the evaluator. -The measure of simplicity is dependent on the linguistic and theoretical context. -Simplicity is a pragmatic virtue

External means:

-being outside

-relevant to the theory’s relation to the world

-/ observation for their evaluation

Evaluate External Features:

-information from external world

-outdoors

External virtues requires observation of the outside world for evaluation.

2 External values for justifying theories:

Explanation

- able to explain some observed phenomena. - it is important to note that there are other theories that support that explanation as well. - it explains why something happens.

Testing and confirmation

- it's done by drawing observational consequences from the theory and seeing that they fit the facts. - accomplished by looking at new evidence as predicted by the theories. -Emphasis in testing is NOT so much on WHY something happens as simply on the fact that it happens according to prediction. - test just to know whether that what you predict is true.

Features that are important to the justification of theories must:

1. truth-conducive
2. accessible

2. What is the one thing I need help in?

For this lesson, I just understand it in general and very surface level. I hope to have real life examples and applications that allow me to make more sense. I tried to search this topic in Youtube as well as Google, but there is limited resources.  

3. How am I going to use this new knowledge to teach nature of science in the future?

In future, I will tell my students that before carry out an experiment,which is external virtue, we need to have precise prediction. After that, they need to explain why something happen and see whether their prediction is true.

To further reading, please check out the e-book:

https://books.google.com.my/books?id=VK5yIq-wzdgC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=internal+and+external+virtues&source=bl&ots=-weoadRlpK&sig=SU4zPkliAxbC8vwBzKOpYqXXHB8&hl=en&sa=X&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=internal%20and%20external%20virtues&f=false